Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 127
1.Aerodynamics is the study of the forces ______ on an object as it moves through the atmosphere.
~ (A) acting __ (B) act
___ (C) are acting __ (D) acted
2. for their strong fiber include flax and hemp.
___ (A) Plants are grown
___ (B) Plants grown
___ (C) Plants that grow
___ (D) To grow plants
3. , Jose Limon's dance troupe often toured abroad.
___ (A) The u.s. State Department sponsored it
___ (B) Sponsored by the U.S. State Department
_ __ (C) The U.S. State Department, which sponsored it
___ (D) The sponsorship of the U.S. State Department
4.Elfreth'sAlJey in Philadelphia is the oldest residential street in the United States, with
______ from 1728.
___ (A) hOllses are dated
___ (B) the dates of the houses
___ (C) the dating of houses
___ (D) hOllses dating
5.In 1821 the city of Indianapolis, Indiana, was laid out in a design ______ after that of Washington, D.C.
___ (A) patterned
___ (B) was patterned
___ (C) a pattern
___ (D) that patterned
6. | in front of a camera lens changes the color of the light that reaches the film. | |
___ (A) Placed a filter | ||
___ (B) A filter is placed | ||
___ (C) A filter placed | ||
___ (D) When a filter placed | ||
7. | The Massachusetts State House, | in 1798, was the most distinguished building in |
the United States at that time. | ||
___ (A) completing | ||
___ (B) which was completed | ||
___ (C) was completed | ||
__ (D) to be completed | ||
8. | Barbara McClintock | for her discovery of the mobility of genetic elements. |
__ (A) known | ||
___ (B) who knows
___ (C) knowing
___ (D) is known
9.The solitary scientist ______ by himse1fhas in many instances been replaced by a cooperative scientific team.
___ (A) to make important discoveries
___ (B) important discoveries were made
___ (C) has made important discoveries
___ (9) making important discoveries
128 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
10.Geometry is the branch of mathematics ______ the properties of lines, curves, shapes, and surfaces.
___ (A) that concerned with
___ (B) it is concerned with
___ (C) concerned with
___ (D) its concerns are
11. | an average of 4T\ | inches of rain a year, Mount Waia1ea1e in Hawaii is the wettest |
spot in the world. | ||
___ (A) It receives | ||
___ (B) Receiving | ||
___ (C) To receive | ||
___ (D) Received | ||
12. Amber is a hard, yellowish-brown | ._____ from the resin of pine trees that lived millions | |
of years ago. | ||
___ (A) substance formed | ||
___ (B) to form a substance | ||
___ (C) substance has formed
___ (D) forming a substance
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 129
LESSON 20
INCOMPLETE OR MISSING APPOSITIVES
An appositive is a noun phrase that explains or rephrases another noun phrase. It usually comes after the noun which it rephrases. It may also come before the subject of a sentence.
Buffalo Bill, a famousfrontiersman, operated his own Wild West Show. (appositive following a noun)
A famous frontiersman, Buffalo Bill operated his own Wild West Show. (appositive before the subject)
Appositives are actually reduced adjective clauses. However, unlike adjective clauses, they do not contain a marker or a verb.
Oak, which is one of the most durable hardwoods, is often used to make furniture. (adjective clause)
Oak, one of the most durable hardwoods, is often used to make furniture. (appositive)
Appositives are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, but some short appositives (usually names) are not.
Economist Paul Samuelson won a Nobel Prize in 1970.
In Structure items. all or part of an appositive phrase may be missing. In addition, the noun that the appositive refers to or other parts of the main clause may be missing.
.... Sample Item | |
The National Road, | of the first highways in North America, |
connected the East Coast to the Ohio Valley.
(A)which one
(B)it was one
(C)one
(D)was one
Choice (A) is incorrect; there is no verb in the relative clause. Choice (B) has no connecting word to join the clause to the rest of the sentence. Choice (D) is incorrect because a verb cannot be used in an appositive phrase. Note: u'hich was one would also be a correct answer. ...
Exercise 20
Focus: Completing structure problems involving appositives. (Note: The focus for one or two items in this exercises is not appositives; these sentences are marked in the answer key with asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentences, and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1.The Democratic Party is older than the other major American political party,
___ (A) which the Republican party
~ (B) the Republican party
___ (C) it is the Republican party
___ (D) the Republican party is
130 | Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression | |
2. | relations with friends and acquaintances, playa major role in the social | |
development of adolescents. | ||
___ (A) What are called peer group relations are | ||
___ (B) Peer group relations are | ||
.___ (C) Peer group relations, the | ||
___ (D) By peer group relations, we mean | ||
3. | Joseph Henry, | first director of the Smithsonian Institute, was President Lincoln's |
advisor on scientific matters. | ||
__ (A) the | ||
__ (B) to be the | ||
__ (C) was the | ||
__ (D) as the | ||
4. | The Wassatch Range, | extends from southeastern Idaho into northern Utah. |
___ (A) which is a part of the Rocky Mountains, | ||
___ (B) a part of the Rocky Mountains that | ||
___ (C) is a part of the Rocky Mountains | ||
___ (D) a part of the Rocky Mountains, it | ||
5. | Ruth St. Dennis turned to Asian dances to find inspiration for her choreography. | |
___ (A) It was the dancer | ||
___ (B) The dancer | ||
___ (C) That the dancer | ||
___ (D) The dancer was | ||
6. | The organs of taste are the | which are mainly located on the tongue. |
___ (A) groups of cells, are taste buds
____ (B) taste buds, are groups of cells
___ (C) taste buds, these are groups of cells
___ (D) taste buds, groups of cells
7. | In 1878 FrederickW Taylor invented a concept called scientific management, ______ of | |
obtaining as much efficiency from workers and machines as possible. | ||
___ (A) it is a method | ||
___ (B) a method which | ||
__ (C) a method | ||
___ (D) called a method | ||
8. | A group of Shakers, | settled around Pleasant Hill, Kentucky, in 1805. |
___ (A) members of a strict religious sect which | ||
___ (B) whose members of a strict religious sect | ||
___ (C) members of a strict religious sect, | ||
___ (D) were members of a strict religious sect | ||
9. | In physics, | "plasma" refers to a gas which has a nearly equal number of positively |
and negatively charged particles. __ (A) the term
__ (B) by the term
___ (C) is termed __ (D) terming
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 131 | |
10. Norman Weiner, | mathematician and logician, had an important role in the |
development of the computer. | |
___ (A) who, as a | |
__ (B) was a | |
__ (C) whom a | |
__ (D) a |
11. Jerome Kern's most famoLls work is Showbo({t, ______ most enduring mLlsical comedies. _ (A) it is one of the i1nest,
___ (B) one of the finest,
___ (C) the finest one
___ (D) as the finest of the
12. | a marshland that covers over 7';0 square miles in North Carolina and Virginia. |
_ | __ (A) In the Great Dismal Swamp, |
___ (B) The Great Dismal Swamp, which
___ (C) The Great Dismal Swamp,
___ (D) The Great Dismal Swamp is
132 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
LESSON 21
INCOMPLETE ADVERB CLAUSES
A) Full Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause consists of a connecting word, called an adverb clause marker (or subordinate conjunction), and at least a subject and a verb.
~
The demand for economical cars increases when gasoline becomes more expensive.
In this example, the adverb clause marker when joins the adverb clause to the main clause. The adverb clause contains a subject (gasoline) and a verb (becomes).
An adverb clause can precede the main clause or follow it. When the adverb clause comes first, it is separated from the main clause by a comma.
When gasoline becomes more expensive, the demand for economical cars increases.
The following markers are commonly seen in the Structure section:
u,~
because | cause | Because the speaker was sick, the program was |
canceled. | ||
since | cause | Since credit cards are so convenient, many people |
use them. | ||
although | opposition | Although he earns a good salary, he never saves |
(contrary cause) | any money. | |
even though | opposition | Even though she was tired, she she stayed up late. |
(contrary cause) | ||
while | contrast | Some people arrived in taxis while others took the |
subway. | ||
if | condition | lfthe automobile had not been invented, what |
would people use for basic transportation? | ||
unless | condition | I won't go unless you do. |
when | time | Your heart rate increases when you exercise |
while | time | Some people like to listen to music while they are |
studying. | ||
as | time | One train was arriving as another was departing. |
since | time | We haven't seen Professor Hill since she returned |
from her trip. | ||
until | time | Don't put off going to the dentist until you have a |
problem. | ||
once | time | Once the dean arrives, the meeting can begin. |
before | time | Before he left the country. he bought some traveler's |
checks. | ||
after | time | She will give a short speech after she is presented |
with the award. |
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 133
In Structure items, any part of a full adverb clause-the marker, the subject, the verb, and so on can be missing from the stem.
B) Clause Markers with -ever
Words that end with -ever are sometimes used as adverb clause markers. (In some sentences, these words are actually noun-clause markers, but they are seldom used that way in Structure items.)
The three -ever words that you are likely to see in the Structure Section are given in the chart below:
wherever | any place | Put that box wherever you |
that ... | can find room for it. | |
whenever | any time | They stay at that hotel |
that ... | whenever they're in Boston. | |
however | anyway | However you solve the |
that. .. | problem, you'll get the same | |
answer. |
C) Reduced Adverb Clauses
When the subject of the main clause and the subject of the adverb clause are the same person or thing, the adverb clause can be reduced (shortened). Reduced adverb clauses do not contain a main verb or a subject. They consist of a marker and a participle (either a present or a past participle) or a marker and an adjective.
When astronauts are orbiting the earth, they don't feel the force of gravity. (full adverb clause)
When orbiting the earth, astronauts don't feel the force of gravity. (reduced clause with present participle)
Although it had been damaged, the machine was still operational. (full adverb clause)
Although damaged, the machine was still operational. (reduced clause with a past participle)
Although he was nervous, he gave a wonderful speech. (full adverb clause)
Although nervous, he gave a wonderful speech. (reduced clause with an adjective)
You will most often see reduced adverb clauses with the markers although, while, if, when, before, after, and until. Reduced adverb clauses are NEVER used after because.
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 133
In Structure items, any part of a full adverb clause-the marker, the subject, the verb, and so oncan be missing from the stem.
B) Clause Markers with -ever
Words that end with -ever are sometimes used as adverb clause markers. (In some sentences, these words are actually noun-clause markers, but they are seldom used that way in Structure items.)
The three -ever words that you are likely to see in the Structure Section are given in the chart below:
wherever | any place | Put that box wherever you |
that ... | can fmd room for it. | |
whenever | any time | They stay at that hotel |
that ... | whenever they're in Boston. | |
however | anyway | However you solve the |
that ... | problem, you'll get the same | |
answer. |
C) Reduced Adverb Clauses
When the subject of the main clause and the subject of the adverb clause are the same person or thing, the adverb clause can be reduced (shortened). Reduced adverb clauses do not contain a main verb or a subject. They consist of a marker and a participle (either a present or a past participle) or a marker and an adjective.
'When astronauts are orbiting the earth, they don't feel the force of gravity. (full adverb clause)
'When orbiting the earth, astronauts don't feel the force of gravity. (reduced clause with present participle)
Although it had been damaged, the machine was still operational. (full adverb clause)
Although damaged, the machine was still operational. (reduced clause with a past participle)
Although he was nervous, he gave a wonderful speech. (full adverb clause)
Although nervous, he gave a wonderful speech. (reduced clause with an adjective)
You will most often see reduced adverb clauses with the markers although, while, if, when, before, after, and until. Reduced adverb clauses are NEVER used after because.
134Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
D)Prepositional Phrases with the Same Meaning as Adverb Clauses
There are also certain prepositions that have essentially the same meaning as adverb-clause markers but are used before noun phrases or pronouns, not with clauses.
because of | because/since | He chose that university because of its fine |
reputation. | ||
due to | because/since | The accident was due to mechanical failure. |
on account of | because/since | Visibility is poor today on account of air |
pollution. | ||
in spite of | although/even though | He enjoys motorcycle riding in spite of the |
danger. | ||
despite | although/even though | Despite its loss, the team is still in first place. |
during | when/while | Her father lived in England during the war. |
In structure items where the correct answer is an adverb-clause marker, one of these words often appears as a distractor.
T Sample Items
No one knows what color dinosaurs were ______ no sample of their skin has survived.
(A)because of
(B)because that
(C)it is because
(D)because
Choice (A) is incorrect; because of can only be used before nouns or pronouns. In choice (B), that is unnecessary. In (C), the phrase it is is used unnecessarily.
______ rises to the surface of the earth, a volcano is formed.
(A)Liquid magma
(B)Whenever liquid magma
(C)Liquid magma, which
(D)That liquid magma
Choice (A) creates two clauses, but there is no connecting word to join them. (C) creates a sentence with a main clause and an adjective clause, but the main clause has two subjects (liquid magma and a volcano). (D) creates a noun clause. In a correct sentence, when a noun clause begins a sentence, the clause itself is the subject of the verb in the main clause, but this sentence already has a subject
(volcano).
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 135
______ invisible to the unaided eye, ultraviolet light can be detected in a number of ways.
(A)Although is
(B)Despite
(C)Even though it
(D)Although
The best answer completes a reduced adverb clause. In choice (A), the adverb clause lacks a subject and is not a correct reduction because it contains a verb. In choice (B), despite cannot be used with an adjective (only with a noun phrase or pronoun).
(C) does not supply a verb for the adverb clause and is not a correct reduction because it contains a subject.
Because ______ , alabaster can be easily carved.
(A)is soft
(B)softness
(C)of its softness
(D)of soft
Choice (A) lacks a subject in the adverb clause. Choice (B), a noun, could only be used with because of In (D), because of is followed by an adjective; to be correct, it must be followed by a noun phrase or pronoun. ...
Exercise 21
Focus: Completing structure problems involving adverb clauses, reduced adverb clauses, and related prepositional expressions. (Note: Two or three items do not focus on one of these structures. These items are marked in the answer key with an asterisk.)
Directions: Choose the one option-CA), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentences, and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1.Small sailboats can easily capsize ______ they are not handled carefully.
__ (A) but
__ (B) | which |
~ (C) | if |
__ CD) so | |
2. | they are tropical birds, parrots can live in temperate or even cold climates. |
__ (A) Despite | |
__ (B) | Even though |
___ CC) Nevertheless __ (D) But
3. | added to a liquid, antifreeze lowers the freezing temperature of that liquid. |
__ (A) That | |
__ (B) | Asis |
.__ (C) It is __ (D) When